Implicit Leadership Theories free essay sample

Since the beginning of leadership literature, many researchers and studies tried to explain effective leadership from different perspectives. Early studies focused on the identification of traits that distinguished leaders from followers. Despite many studies have been carried out in the field, there was no universal list of traits presented containing characteristics that would guarantee success of leaders (Lussier Achua, 2004). This failure led to the shift of attention towards behavioral leadership theories. Researchers tried to identify differences in the behavior of effective and ineffective leaders. Although several widely-used behavioral models have been built up, such as Mintzberg’s leadership theory, there was no ultimate agreement among researchers of the field, because studies generated mixed results (Lussier Achua, 2004; Kenney et al. , 1994). As a result, scholar’s interest turned towards contingency leadership theories, which aim to explain the required leadership style, given certain leader traits and/or behaviors, followers and situation Categories not only provide shared systems of names, but also help individuals to simplify the external world. We will write a custom essay sample on Implicit Leadership Theories or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This simplification is especially important, since individuals are incapable of remembering on all the relevant information observed about an individual. When the stimulus had been compared to the potential preexisting categories, and placed in one of the categories based on the similarity to its members, in the following the characteristics of the category, not the observed information itself helps the individual to interpret the stimulus’ behavior. With other words, categorization helps the organizational sensemaking process (Lord et al. , 1984; Foti Lord, 1987; Phillips, 1984; Kenney et al. , 1994). This is why ILTs do not represent objective realities (Epitropaki Martin, 2004). According to Lord et al. (1984), the matching process of the stimulus to the preexisting categories is an automated, unconscious process. While simplifying the concept of ILTs, Kenney at al. (1994) acknowledge that leadership lies in the eyes of the observer. As they explain, follower responsiveness is the key to effective leadership. In order for a leader to be able to utilize his or her power, the significant moderating effect of leadership perception needs to be considered. Keller (2003) also points out that the importance of ILTs originates from its potential influence on the leader-follower interaction. Keller (2000, 2003) mention in her studies that the formulation of the schemas are not only affected by early childhood experiences, parent-child relationships, and parental traits and behaviors, but personality traits of the observer (Lord et al. , 1999) as well. Although this suggests that there might be significant differences in the different preexisting categories of different individuals, these differences remained unexamined to date. More attention has been paid to the perception differences on country level. Numerous studies detail the effect of culture on ILTs (Dorfman et al. , 2004; House Javidan, 2004). Moreover, studies also mention the potential effect of the gender of the stimulus on the observants’ perceptions (Phillips, 1984; Lord et al. , 1984; Cronshaw Lord, 1987). The following chapter will further elaborate on the relationship between ILTs and the effect of cultural differences on it, and the effect of the leader’s gender on ILTs. Implicit Leadership Theories and Culture The cross-cultural literature has very often drawn a strong link between culture and leadership styles. Shaw (1990) explained in his study how culture effects leadership on three fields: in the content of employee/manager schemas, in the structure of schemas, and in the automatic or controlled way of information-processing of individuals. His study concludes that there are culturally influenced differences in leadership prototypes across different cultures. These different prototypes are usually referred to as Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theories (CLTs) (Koopman, den Hartog Konrad, 1999). Dorfman, Hanges Brodbeck (2004) examined in their study whether the structure and content of cultural belief systems will be reflected in the CLTs as well. They expected to have positive relationship between cultures and CLTs based on the argumentation that over time, members of the same cultural clusters start to share common beliefs about leaders, they develop leadership prototypes. These common leadership clusters are the function of the common values, expectations and behaviors of the given culture. They used data gathered during the GLOBE project to find evidence for their hypothesis. Their findings show that the societies studied had a unique profile concerning the culturally endorsed implicit theory of leadership (House at al. 004). The findings also show that the differences in CLTs across cultures are more strongly associated with the cultural values (Should Be items on the questionnaire) than with cultural practices (As Is items on the questionnaire). As Dorfman, Hanges Brodbeck (2004, p. 701) explain, this finding seems to be logical, since â€Å"values reflect an idealized state of what should be and, therefore, ought to c orrespond to individuals’ implicit beliefs regarding idealized leadership attitudes†. Studies examining CLTs have three shortcomings. First of all they are usually U. S. based, and aim to set up leadership prototypes based on the U. S. sample (Schein, 1973, 1975; Brenner et al. 1989; Heliman et al. 1989). Other studies, although numerous, base their research on the findings of the GLOBE study (Koopman et al. 1999; Dorfman House, 2004; House et al. 2002; Dorfman et al. 2004; Paris, 2004). Most of the publishing experts belong to the GLOBE researcher circle, thus publishing studies with very similar content. The third limitation of these studies was the lack of combination of ILTs with the culture and gender dimensions. Although Schein and Muller already realized these shortcomings, they only compared the U. S. with two developed Western-European countries, Great Britain and the U. S. The current study aims to replicate the research in two different cultural settings, the Netherlands, and a former-socialist country, Hungary. Implicit Leadership Theories and Gender Although the number of female managers has significantly increased in the last decades, it is still behind the balanced representation that has already been achieved in the higher education. This is especially true for top management positions (Nagy, 2001). Whereas the number of female managers was 15% in Hungary in 2004 based on the data presented by Kienbaum Kft. , in Netherlands this number was 25% in 2002 according to the of the Emancipatiemonitor 2004. Academics seeking for explanation of this phenomena identified several different groups of reasoning. Costa, Terracciano and McCrae (2001) mention two different sets of explanation in their study. The biological theories draw historical and evolutionary reasoning for the differences between the two sexes. Due to biological reasons, such as childbirth, women hold more nurturing characteristics than men. On the other hand social psychological theories argue that most gender differences are due to the adoption of gender roles of a particular culture. According to these explanations these differences might be the reasons for the unequal distribution of management between the two genders. Nagy (2003) mentions three sets of explanations, called gender, organization, and system. Gender refers to the unequal expectations, stereotypes and prejudice held by all levels of the society towards women. According to this explanation, instead of considering the actual performances of individuals, the stereotypes are the determinants in women’s promotion to managerial positions. Organization refers to the fact that the number of women in top management is very slight, as a result they tend to suffer from tokenism. They are held as a token of their gender, they are placed in the light and evaluated more critically than usual. Gender and organization interact with each other in the limited career opportunities for women, and are supported by the social and institutional system as well. Wajcman (1988) identified two potential explanations in her influential book on female managers. One of them is the limited human capital pool of women to fulfill the managerial role. According to the human capital theory women, by voluntarily choosing child caring activities, invest less in their human capital. As a result, they lack the necessary qualifications to be promoted to managerial positions. This set of explanation has been falsified by the fact that women participate in higher education on the same level with men, and their occupational aspirations are similar to that of the other gender. Despite these findings, the previously mentioned gender gap in management still exists. Furthermore, as Wajcman explained, evidence shows that women need to outperform men in order to get promoted. The other group of theories focus on personality traits, cognition, behaviors, and individual attitudes towards the job. According to this theory, the managerial role by its nature better fits to men than to women. This set of explanation gave birth to a large number of studies. The first experiments of Schein (1973, 1975) found that both male and female respondents viewed management in male terms. She concluded based on her results that the stereotype of men better fitting to managerial roles might be a major barrier for women to get promoted to managerial positions. The replication of the study in 1989 by Brenner, Tomkiewicz and Schein, however, showed different results. Male respondents still stereotyped management as being a masculine occupation, however female respondents perceived that men and women were equally likely to possess traits necessary for successful management. Since the previously mentioned studies were all U. S. based, Schein and Muller repeated the survey in different cultural settings. The research was carried out in 1992 in Germany, Great Britain and U. S. Findings showed that sex typing of the managerial position largely diverge among the countries. In Germany, where the number of female managers is very low in comparison to the other two countries studied, female respondents sex type management almost as much as male respondents do. On the other hand female respondents in the U. S. , where a large increase in female participation in management has been achieved, do not sex type management. These results show a significant progress in sex typing in the U. S. however the leader role is still viewed stereotypically in masculine terms especially by male respondents. As a result, women may not be considered for promotion to managerial positions as often as men are, even though they might possess the same characteristics and social capital. While studying personality traits and behavior as a possible cause for the limited number of women in managerial positions, some concerns have been brought whether women manage differently from men. Studies of this question present contradictory results. Van Engen (2001) described in her book the wo different sets of arguments academics represent. According to the first view women manage differently from men, men using more task-oriented, while women using more people-oriented style. The findings of van Engen also supports this view. She found that men tend to use more masculine, while women more feminine type of leadership. However, only 1% of the variance in the leadership styles could be explained by gender differences. On the other hand researchers favoring the similarity position state that men and women manage in similar ways. Nagy and Wajcman both found evidence for this view. Based on the findings of Nagy (2001) the values of both male and female managers are very close to each other, rather favoring the masculine leadership style. She claimed in her study that instead of making a distinction between masculine and feminine values in management, one should only focus on general managerial values. In a similar study carried out in 2003 Nagy failed to find difference in the leadership style of the two genders again, since both groups claimed to have participative values. On the other hand, still a large proportion of respondents stated that there is a distinguishable masculine and feminine type of leadership. This finding shows the strong presence of sex stereotypes towards managers. The research carried out by Wajcman (1988) shows very similar results. She found that individual differences within the groups of men and women managers far more outweight the differences found between the two groups. She concluded that there is no such thing as feminine leadership style, rather women adopt to the requirements and characteristics of the male management style. She found furthermore that sex role stereotyping was very strong even despite the lack of actual differences. These stereotypes, as described earlier, are one of the primary reasons for the limited number of women in managerial positions, especially on the top. However, this limited number of female leaders is not only an effect, but a cause of inequality as well. The previously mentioned studies showed that men tend to possess more sex stereotypical views towards female managers than women do. If men, guided by their perceptions, are likely to act in a way that preserves male domination and advantages, male supremacy in managerial positions can be a primary cause of workplace inequalities (Wajcman, 1988). Getting to managerial positions is not the only difficulty women have to face during their working career. Sex segregation in the labor market not only occurs vertically leading to the glass ceiling, but also horizontally, generating occupational sex segregation (Wajcman, 1988; Koncz, 2002; Reskin Roos, 1990). Statistics show that women tend to be overrepresented in occupations of lower prestige and less salary, such as being nurses, as opposed to the overrepresentation of men among doctors. A very interesting experiment has been carried out by Williams (1989) about men and women in nontraditional occupations. She studied the state of female marines and male nurses, both occupations being highly sex segregated in the U. S. While women in the marines faced barriers of discrimination in both written and unwritten rules, male were welcomed in the nursing occupation: instead of being negatively discriminated, they were even better treated by physicians than female nurses. Findings show that even though some women get to the same positions as men, they tend to have less responsibility (Wajcman, 1988), and lower salary (Koncz, 2002) than men. Also, getting to top level or prestigious positions highly depends on one’s social networks, which is usually a men’s network. Women, because of their gender, are excluded from this chain. For instance when my father joined the Rotary Club and came home from the first meeting, I asked him about how the meeting went, what the club was about, and whom the members were. He admitted that there were no women members of the club at all. As a reason he explained that all the individual clubs had to follow certain guidelines, but besides these they were allowed to create their individual regulations. One of their rules was that women could become a member under the condition that another women member recommended her. Not surprisingly no women could make it to the membership. Hypothesis The above analysis discussed how stereotyping, and its behavioral manifestation, discrimination acts as a major barrier for women at the workplace. This might be a reason for the limited number of female managers. The current study aims to study stereotyping in the Netherlands and Hungary, two countries having different historical, cultural, social and legislative backgrounds concerning the state of women. First of all the picture on successful managers will be compared based on the data gathered in both countries. Later on the stereotypic thinking will be investigated by comparing the successful manager picture to both the male manager and female manager pictures in both countries. We suppose that the characteristics of male managers will be closer to the characteristics of the successful managers than the characteristics of female managers in the answers of the respondents. Hypothesis: it is expected that the managerial position will be stereotyped as being a male occupation in both countries. In the Netherlands the number of women working full-time is still relatively low. Due to the historically present breadwinner–based households, the very short official maternity leave and the poor state of the kindergarten system, many women choose to stay at home or work part-time. These might me the major source of sex stereotyping of the managerial positions in the Netherlands. On the other hand, the number of female managers is relatively high (25% in 2002) compared to Hungary (15% in 2004). As we could see before, this might have a positive influence on breaking the stereotypes. Furthermore, feminism, feminist organizations and women studies are very well developed and accepted in the Netherlands. This might be the reason that the Netherlands scored very high on the Gender Egalitarianism Should Be score of the GLOBE study. In Hungary, due to historical reasons, women’s contribution in the workplace equally to men has been a very wide and well-accepted phenomena. The legislative and social background has been built up accordingly, way before the Netherlands. Nurseries and kindergartens are wide-spread and well developed in order to support working mothers. Hungary also scored the highest on the Gender Egalitarianism As Is scale of the GLOBE study. These facts show that sex stereotyping should be very limited on the workplace compared to countries where these circumstances are not present yet. On the other hand the number of female managers is very low even compared to the Netherlands, feminism and women studies are almost nonexistent phenomena in the Hungarian society, and traditional sex roles are still strongly present in the everyday life of people. All in all, we could see that certain trends and institutions already exist in both countries that would promote the disappearance of sex role stereotyping in the managerial positions. On the other hand it is also clear that some forces – although they are completely the opposite of each other in the two countries – still support the stereotyping viewpoint in both Hungary and the Netherlands.

Free Essays on Alternative Teacher Certificationâ€An Overview

Alternative Teacher Certification- An Overview A sad and daunting reality became apparent to our society in the early 1980s. A reality that our founding fathers would have probably never dreamed of- a dangerous shortage of teachers. Our predecessors may very well have thought that their new American Nation would be a land of high intelligence in both children and adults alike and that there would always be an ample supply of educators. To be a teacher in the early days of this great nation was to hold a position of prestige and importance for the future was in the hands of the teachers. Now, over 200 years later, we are faced with the burden of educating our future. Except for this time, the burden is extremely heavy because of tougher standards, lower pay, and disrespect from students and parents. To offset the decline of new teachers entering the profession, a new type of certification was devised. If successful, this new concept would help more people become teachers in less time. Unfortunately, this certification was extremely controversial because it was simply shortcutting, which would later give it a bad name. To be proactive, many states devised other routes of teacher certification so that people in specialized fields, in the military, people with a certain skill, and former teachers wanting to get back in the game would be able to do so with relative ease. This new trend proved to be fast growing. By 1997, 41 states, plus the District of Columbia, report having at least some type of alternative certification program. These states have made up 117 programs (collectively) and some 75,000 new teachers have been birthed as a result to these programs. However, 17 of the states have reported a mild decrease in participation, while 25 states report an increase. This increase is very promising; especially since the National Center of Education Statistics, as well as many others, states that we will need 2 million more teac... Free Essays on Alternative Teacher Certification—An Overview Free Essays on Alternative Teacher Certification- An Overview Alternative Teacher Certification- An Overview A sad and daunting reality became apparent to our society in the early 1980s. A reality that our founding fathers would have probably never dreamed of- a dangerous shortage of teachers. Our predecessors may very well have thought that their new American Nation would be a land of high intelligence in both children and adults alike and that there would always be an ample supply of educators. To be a teacher in the early days of this great nation was to hold a position of prestige and importance for the future was in the hands of the teachers. Now, over 200 years later, we are faced with the burden of educating our future. Except for this time, the burden is extremely heavy because of tougher standards, lower pay, and disrespect from students and parents. To offset the decline of new teachers entering the profession, a new type of certification was devised. If successful, this new concept would help more people become teachers in less time. Unfortunately, this certification was extremely controversial because it was simply shortcutting, which would later give it a bad name. To be proactive, many states devised other routes of teacher certification so that people in specialized fields, in the military, people with a certain skill, and former teachers wanting to get back in the game would be able to do so with relative ease. This new trend proved to be fast growing. By 1997, 41 states, plus the District of Columbia, report having at least some type of alternative certification program. These states have made up 117 programs (collectively) and some 75,000 new teachers have been birthed as a result to these programs. However, 17 of the states have reported a mild decrease in participation, while 25 states report an increase. This increase is very promising; especially since the National Center of Education Statistics, as well as many others, states that we will need 2 million more teac...

Sedimentary Rocks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Sedimentary Rocks - Essay Example The key characteristic feature of sedimentary rocks is that they are layered. Although there cover of the earth’s crust is extensive (about 75 per cent), sedimentary rocks only constitute about five per cent of the total volume of the crust. The earth’s crust mainly consists of the igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are vital sources of the natural resources such as coal and drinking water (Stille and Fichter, 2008). Formation of Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks are usually formed in areas where there is water or water had existed in one particular time. The dead materials of animals, plants, and pieces of rocks or minerals are then transported to these areas (water bodies) by wind, water, ice, or gravity where they are often dropped off and sink to the bottom. At the bottom of the water bodies, they little by little begin to form layers which build on top of one another. This puts pressure on the lower layers thus the weight of all of the layers pushes down the lower layers until they harden into rock.   This process does not occur in few years but takes millions of years to happen.   During this process, the water body dries up and the sedimentary layer that used to be under water becomes a surface layer (Boggs, 1995). Categories of Sedimentary Rocks According to Stille and Fichter (2008), sedimentary rocks are categorized into three main groups based on sediment type. The three categories include: Clastic Sedimentary Rock: they are formed from mechanical weathering debris. Examples include sandstone, conglomerate and breccias. Organic Sedimentary Rocks: they are formed from accumulation of dead plant and animal materials. Examples include coal and some limestones. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: they are formed by precipitation of dissolved materials from solutions. Examples include some limestones and rock salt. Distinguishing Characteristics between the Three Categories of Sedimentary Rocks Clastic Sedimentary Rocks These are the most common type of sedimentary rocks and are comprised of granular materials which occur in sediments. Clastic rocks largely consist of surface minerals such as clay, feldspar and quartz which are formed as a result of physical breakdown of rocks and alteration of rocks chemically. Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified according to the size of the particle which is dominant in the rock. For example, Breccia is composed of large angular fragment, sandstone is composed of sand size weathering debris and conglomerate is made up of large rounded particles. Clastic sedimentary rocks have clastic texture; they are made up of clasts (Stille and Fichter, 2008). Organic Sedimentary Rocks Organic sedimentary rocks are composed of organic matter: animal and plant fragments. This type of rock is usually formed in two ways. One type (which includes limestone and chest) forms in the sea due accumulation of dead plankton shells whereas as the other one (coal) is formed due accumulation of dead plant on the earth surface (Boggs, 1995). Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by inorganic precipitation of supersaturated mineral constituents. They form within the depositional basin from components of chemicals dissolved in water. Unlike clastic sedimentary rocks, the direct origin of chemicals is not east to esteblish. The chemicals could originate from magma or from an

The benefits and drawbacks of finance and accounting outsourcing Research Paper

The benefits and drawbacks of finance and accounting outsourcing - Research Paper Example Outsourcing of core business activities was seen to be trend of SMEs however it is evident that today even larger organizations outsource their core functions as these activities are seen to be burden for the management. In the present business or corporate world competition has increased thus the managements are more inclined in utilizing their time for the business and competitive strategies thus they find outsourcing a feasible option however before making any such decision both the pros and cons of outsourcing core business activities like accounting/finance must be analyzed and then it should be decided whether to keep them in-house or outsource. Considerations for Outsourcing Finance/Accounting It is not just burden of working and maintaining records that has to be considered before making the decision for outsourcing there are mixture of risks and rewards involved that must be analyzed. First and for most criteria has to be the cost analysis the cost maintaining a finance depa rtment keeping in view all the expenses like training, salaries, office space, benefits, equipment and software would have to be compared to outsourcing keeping in view that same targets are to be achieved thus the related costs of outsourcing along with in-house operations must be recorded and documented (Jayamalathi, Magiswary, Dr. Murali, & Noreen, 2009). In case of finance department being outsourced decision regarding the access of records has to be made that how the relevant data would be delivered, who would be accessing the company records and in what format they would be presented to the outsourcer. All these factors have to be discussed in outsourcing agreement so as to be clear and whether they would be comfortable as it should not be impeding their regular course of business. It has to analyze the level and range of services that the outsourcer would be offering they should be less than what the company maintains in-house. Deadlines are important for finance and accounti ng as the relevant records are required from time to time thus it had to be made sure as how the resources would be allocated in order to ensure that the deadlines are met. In choice of outsourcer it has to be focused that whether his working style could be integrated into the culture of company otherwise data integration would be an extra burden over the company (Tejaswini & Rajiv, 2010). Company records are the critical factor for working and operations thus it often seen that management is not comfortable in sharing the information and the internal data even with the outsourcer thus it has to be considered the level of services required and decisions to be made regarding the data that would be shared with the outsourcer. Pros and Cons of Outsourcing Finance/Accounting Pros mostly can be said to be the reasons or the benefits for which the small and medium sized companies chose to outsource their finance/accounting departments (Yunus, Ren, & Jing, 2005). Cons can be said to be the risks that may cause to avoid the decision of outsourcing. Following are the pros and cons of outsourcing discussed: Pros of outsourcing Financial saving is most lucrative advantage that the SMEs focus on due to their limited financial resources thus

Will business save the planet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Will business save the planet - Essay Example In the recent decade, energy requirements have risen considerably (Economic Intelligence Unit). More important is the conservation of energy to secure the safety and energy sustainability of its future generation. This entails utilizing renewable energy sources that do not contribute to pollution (reasons for using renewable resources). Complete utilization of renewable energy sources, as opposed to non-renewable sources will ensure pollution emissions are reduced to minimum levels thereby conserving the ozone layer (HAVC System). One of the development objectives of China is to foster the growth of wind and solar companies (ACORE). Non-renewable energy is bound to get depleted in the near future. Investing in the non-renewable energy is an appropriate method to alleviate the risk of running out of non-renewable energy. Hence China has secured its place as the world leader in growing its green energy. Approximately a quarter of the world green energy is found in China. Between 2005 a nd 2010, wind turbines have been constructed at a fast rate in China (Economic Intelligence Unit). China has established itself as an â€Å"economic superpower† and is also striving to be the world leader in utilizing green energy. China is no doubt becoming the world’s leader in the exploitation of green energy sources. While, the USA, which is the current leader in green energy investment, is losing momentum in investing in green energy, China is making big strides in exploiting green energy. Hence China is bound to be ranked number one in tapping and exploiting green energy resources. These vibrant efforts made by China have caught the attention of investors like Bloomerg New Energy Finance and Germany among other investors, which contribute to China’s green energy capital (Silverstein 1). China’s efforts to strive to be a leader in utilizing green energy have been become apparent to international stakeholders who can assist China to achieve its energy goals. This assistance could be in the form of financial support or technological research on how to convert green energy to a usable form. In a bid to further its green energy agenda, China is getting rid of companies that utilize non-renewable energy resources. Between 2005 and 2010, China decommissioned power companies that were inefficient in terms of power consumption and this trend is also set to continue. China is also abolishing those companies that contribute to air pollutant emissions (â€Å"China’s action on climate change,† 1). Abolishing companies that utilize non-renewable energy sources is a sure way to minimize pollution emissions and attain total green energy dependence. Among the green energy conversion technologies that have gained the most recognition in terms of financing include solar power technologies with the top markets being China, Europe and the United States. However, the United States is losing its grip as the world leader in attracting i nvestments for green energy due to lack of governmental commitment in green energy efforts (Silverstein 1). This shows that China is committed to converting to green energy exploitation. This is shown by the enormous financial investments it is the direction towards green energy. Such is the commitment that will set at the top of the list of the world’s leaders in green energy investment. Other countries that have shown considerable efforts in investing in green energy include Italy, Brazil and India (Silverstein 1). The future of Green Energy in China In China’s 12th 5 year plan, the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions was given priority, showing China’s change in attitude towards green ene

Differences Between The Vietnamese And Americans Cultural Studies Essay

Differences Between The Vietnamese And Americans Cultural Studies Essay Literature review: Definitions Concept of face: There are many definitions of face. But in general, face is an image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes. Goffman conceptualizes face as the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself or herself by the line others assume he or she has taken during a particular contact. He also (1955) also argues that face can be lost, saved and/ or given. He (1967) further suggests two foci of face: self-face (ones own face) and other-face (others face). One not only defends self-face but also protects other-face during interactions (as cited in cross-cultural and interpersonal issues, Stella Ting- Toomey, p.49, 1994) According to George Yule in pragmatics (1996), there are two types of face: Negative face: a person joining in communication needs to be independent and has freedom of action. He or she does not want to be imposed on by others. (George (1996), p.61) Positive face: a person joining in communication needs to be accepted even liked by others. He or she wants to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that his or her wants are shared by others (George (1996), p.62) Other terms: Cross-cultural communication: Culture is communication and communication is culture (Hall, 1959). Cross-cultural communication is communication (verbal and nonverbal) between people from different cultures; cultural values, belief, attitudes, etc has an impact on communication (as cited in cross-cultural communication, Ho Thi My Hau, 2001). And we can realize cross-cultural communication on people through their reactions and responses to each other. Face-saving: As James R. Silkena (2009) stated that Face-saving may be defined as the act of preserving ones prestige or outward dignity (p.154) Face-saving is one of the ways to preserve politeness when people joining in conversation. As George Yule (1996) stated that given the possibility that some action might be interpreted as a threat to anothers face, the speaker can say something to lessen the possible threat. This is a face-saving act (p.61) Politeness: Politeness is an act of awareness of other peoples face. Brown and Levinson is two major representatives on politeness and when we talk about them we no doubt talk about their models politeness that is considered as the greatest impact on language research in general and on intercultural communication in particular. And according to Brown and Levinson, two main sides of politeness include positive politeness and negative politeness. Positive politeness: People joining communication want to be praised and respected. Ex: a. How about lending me some money? Hey, Bucky, Id appreciate it if youd let me borrow you money. This kind of politeness is seen in every life and the speakers want the others to be pleased and glad. That can lead to be easy for every issue for both speakers and listeners. Negative politeness In contrast to positive politeness, people joining communication want to be independent and not to be treated. Ex: Could you lend me your money? Im sorry to bother you but can I ask you for your money? Face saving act is more commonly performed via a negative politeness (George, p.64). In conclusion, in Brown and Levinsons model the complement hope and self-control are the most fundamental force of politeness. Face-saving function as politeness: Socio-norm view: Face-saving has functions as politeness. People in communication consider preserving face-saving as one of politenesss issues. Face-saving is concerned all over the world. And it is a universal one; however, the characteristic of face-saving is so different through the world. And that is reason why it is concerned as socio-norm view in our society. Preserving face-saving for ourselves and others plays an important role in preserving social relations among people. As a result, people avoid losing face while communicating with others. Face-saving function as politeness: Self-face: Person engaging in communication tries to save his/ her face in front of the others. In this regard, the speakers appreciate their independence or individualism. And preserving their face in front of other people is the most important thing. As a result, they try to avoid being caused to lose face by themselves among people. Other-face: Person engaging in communication tries to save the other face in front of the others. Partner avoids lose the politeness and tries to follow the conversational principles. In communication, other-face may be the most concerned one than self-face. This is one of the important issues in preserving politeness. In brief, as in a study of Baxter (1984), the Japanese often concerns much more on self-face than others. In contrast, the American people seem to concern much more on other-face than self-face. There were also differences in the situations individuals thought maintaining self-face was important. Japanese wanted to preserve self-face inprivate, informal, and intimate situations. North Americans, in contrast, wanted to maintain self-face in public, formal, and nonintimate settings (The challenge of facework: cross and interpersonal issues, Stella Ting Toomy, p.55-56) Socio-cultural impacts on face-saving: The positive social value a person effectively claims for himself or herself (Goffman, 1995, p.213) The concept of face-saving through is different from cultures worldwide. In such a culture with strong face-saving viewpoint, all business could end up if one side or another is leaded to lose face. In this culture, face-saving plays a more important role than business issues. On the other hand, in such a culture with weak face-saving viewpoint, all business could continue if one side or another is leaded to lose face. In this culture, business issues play more important than face-saving. In Hos view, face is never a purely individual thing. It does not make sense to speak of the face of an individual as something lodged within his (her) person; it is meaningful; only when his (her) face is considered in relation to that of others in the social network (p. 882) (as cited in The challenge of facework: cross-cultural and interpersonal issues, Stella Ting Toomy, p. 51) To Vietnam, although C.kerbrat orecchioni did not arrange Vietnam as in negative politeness society, we can realize it in some Vietnamese folk verses and proverbs like: Ta và ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚  ta tà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¯m ao ta Dà ¹ trong dà ¹ Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¥c ao nhà   và ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ «n hÆ ¡n   Trà ¢u ta ăn cà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚  Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Å"ng ta Tuy rà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ±ng cà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚  cà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¥t nhÆ °ng là   cà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚  thÆ ¡m   The view of face-saving is always associated with face-losing in Vietnamese viewpoint that is performed in: Tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœt danh hÆ ¡n là   là  nh à ¡o NgÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i ta hà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¯u tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ­ hà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¯u sinh, Sà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœng lo xà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ©ng phà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ­n, thà ¡c danh tià ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¿ng thÆ ¡m  Ã‚   Ä em chuà ´ng Ä‘i Ä‘Ã ¡nh xà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ © ngÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i Chà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ³ng kà ªu, cÃ…Â ©ng Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¥m mà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢t hà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Å"i là ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¥y danh  Ã‚   In addition, vietnamese folk verses and proverbs also reflect the reverse side of face-saving like: Tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœt Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¹p phà ´ ra, xà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¥u xa Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ­y là ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡i khi là  nh khà ´ng gà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ·p, khi rà ¡ch gà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ·p là ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¯m ngÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i quen Vietnamese often consider face-saving to be a survival issue of each and vice versa losing face is considered to be more serious than death. And Vietnamese absolutely avoid being lost face or they make all ways to avoid losing other-face that is performed as followed: Hoa thÆ ¡m ai nà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¡ bà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚  rÆ ¡i NgÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i khà ´n ai nà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¡ nà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ·ng là ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i và ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ºi ai Là ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i nà ³i chà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ³ng mà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¥t tià ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ n mua Là ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ±a là ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i mà   nà ³i cho và ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ «a là ²ng nhau Thua trà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i mà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢t và ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡n khà ´ng bà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ±ng thua bà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡n mà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢t ly As well as the Vietnamese in particular and in Asian culture in general, the American also have their face-saving. They also do not want to lose face in front of other people. American people appreciate the individualism and they often do not concern on the others thought. Saying no in front of the others is not considered to be rude that is a necessary demand to avoid misunderstanding tomorrow. A typical example is that in Asian finance crisis in 1997, many Japanese managers suicide because they think their action is one of the ways to protect their human dignity. But to the American, at the same circumstance, they are not to do like that. As a result, they want to make the others progress then. Conclusion: Through the study, we can realize that American communications in face-saving often appreciate each persons individualism and they seem not to focus on collectivist face-saving. Vietnamese, on the other hand, often appreciate collectivist face-saving than self-face saving. That does not mean I indicate which is better, I want to say in general one issue. That is also appropriate to the two cultural communications American and Vietnam. If we can understand clearly this face-saving in communication that can help us contribute to having proper communication style and avoid regrettable mistakes and conflicts in a cross-cultural communication. In this study, I give you the comparison between the two cultures Vietnamese and American that is not to judge which culture is more polite in face-saving while communication. That is the reason why we could not consider this culture to be higher than another one.

Catcher in the Rye Synthesis Essay Essay

Holden confronts many issues throughout Catcher in the Rye that still pose a problem to teenagers: such as the need to succeed, the desire for friendship, and the need to mature. These issues are generally forced upon a teenager by a more authoritative figure with higher expectations in comparison to themselves. Although some may regard these as a eustress, they cause distress to many teenagers, and society still upholds such standards. The need to succeed was forced upon Holden by his parents when they set very high expectations and enlisted him in private schools. Holden did not like this pressure and revolted: â€Å"All of a sudden, I decided what I’d really do, I’d get the hell out of Pencey–right that same night and all† (Page 51). This proved that the need to succeed was a form of distress in Holden’s time because he decided to pack his bags and just leave Pencey. In addition, parents in Holden’s time did not understand that this issue caused stress to teenagers. In an article written by William Zinsser, children ask their parents, â€Å"But what if we fail?† (Zinsser). The parents respond, â€Å"Don’t† (Zinsser). The article shows how oblivious parents could be to the stress they were causing to their own children. But what kind of stress and to what extent is it a stressor today? Today, the need to succeed can causes eustress when used in moderation and in a positive manner. For example, my parents take me out to dinner wherever I choose if I finish a six week grading period with all A’s. To this day, the need to succeed is very much alive, but it has taken on a new form compared to back in Holden’s time. The desire for friendship was forced upon Holden by himself. He always tried to make a friend wherever he went. Holden even stooped so low as to hire a prostitute and ends up just talking to her, â€Å"I don’t know. Nothing special. I just thought perhaps you might care to chat for a while† (Page 95). This demonstrated Holden’s true desire for friendship because, without the prostitute, he has no one else to talk to. Even nowadays, the desire for friendship is very much evident among teenagers. For example, when my friend Moe moved to Buffalo Grove from Texas in 7th grade, he didn’t really fit in at first. Later, he began to make friends and now he has many friends, as most teenagers do. Thus, the desire for friendship has gone very much unchanged since Holden’s time in comparison to today. The need to mature was  forced upon Holden by the society in which he lived, â€Å"I ordered a Scotch and soda, and told him not to mix it—I said it fast as hell, because if you hem and haw, they think you’re under twenty-one and won’t sell you any intoxicating liquor† (Page 69). Throughout the whole novel, Holden attempted to act more mature in order to fit in with the adults around him during his time period. He smokes, drinks, and hangs around loose women. Holden’s desperation to fit in with the adult world around him is indicated when he goes to the bar and orders a drink which normally, only adults do. In addition, teenagers in Holden’s time were expected by the society in which they lived in to confront issues that only adults normally have to confront, â€Å"Teenagers now are expected to confront life and its challenges with the maturity once expected only of the middle-aged, without any time for preparation† (Elkind). The article, by David Elkind, adds to the fact that teenagers in Holden’s time were expected to mature at a more increasing rate. Nowadays, that expectation is still a burden to teenagers. For example, teenagers today see many celebrities, such as Miley Cyrus, rapidly changing from their innocent, childish ways to acting grown up and developing a stylized, adult personality. Therefore, it is safe to assume that the need to mature has gone rather unchanged from Holden’s time to this day. The need to succeed is still a pressure that many teenagers face, but it is more of a good stress today compared to Holden’s time when it was a negative stress. The desire for friendship is just as apparent today is it was back in Holden’s time because as long as there will be people, they will always need some form of companionship. Lastly, the need to mature is just as required by society today as it was in Holden’s time because teenagers were expected to take on more adult characteristics both then and now. Teenagers had set expectations to meet back in Holden’s era and many of these expectations have gone unchanged since then.

Racial Discrimination from Police Essay

Racial discrimination in the United States is as old as America itself. The United States motto deduces that, although America is a single country, it is made up of people of all walks from all the corners of the world, but some as slaves, especially from Africa. The American population is diverse both culturally and racially thus the name ‘Melting Point’. Racial discrimination is the act of subordinating an individual due to the color of the skin or race. Discrimination against people of color began long ago while slavery still existed, and it took a Civil War between the Northern and Southern states to end slavery. In history, racist violence, police brutality, has been used to suppress the racial blacks and to preserve power and privileges for the white race. This was done for five primary purposes. First, it has forced black people into slavery or low wage situations. Secondly, to steal land and other resources. A third was to maintain social control. A fourth purpose was to eliminate conflict in politics, social life, and employment. Lastly, the fifth purpose was to unite white people across the ethnic, class, and gender boundaries. It is not really different of what we see nowadays through every day in the street. It is just getting a little bit smoother , cover up by law that a certain category of people make to protect themselves and the ones who as the privilege to use it. Most of the times, they do not been treated as the minority whenever they do the same mistakes by the justice in this country. The following grounds for suspicion of criminality are among the many reasons that African American motorists are pulled over: Driving a luxury automobile (e. . , Lexus, Mercedes, BMW, etc. ), driving in a car with other black men, driving early in the morning or late at night, driving in a low-income neighborhood, known for its drug traffic, driving in a neighborhood where there have been recent burglaries,†¦ Although the above list may in fact be the reason that a prejudice officer’s attention is obtained, none of the reasons listed can be filed as a probable cause in the police report. I have so many bad experiences with the police that I think, it is just getting worst. We all know, minority people, that they use theses bunch of †laws† to still keep us down because they still, and for more of the â€Å"white people† ,think that they are a â€Å"superior race†. One day, I was with my dad driving around a nice neighborhood with some friend to go pick up one our friend to go at the club. It was late around 11 pm that night. From nowhere the police pull us over and start actin really at their defensive. They asked us to get out of the car, after checking if the car has the proper paper (insurance & driver license). They asked us what we were doing there and we answered without stress that we are going to pick up a friend of us to go at the club. One of us asked us, straight up on our face, if we were not here for other illegal purpose in the neighborhood. We were still acting cool, at the same moment two others police cars pulled over. We were surprise by the number of units just for 3 people. They start searching us with some brutality and still asking stupid questions. The car also has been check. They brought a K-9 dog to search the car. We did not know what they were looking for and even if they have a warrant on us. After some so long minutes, they let us go. The think that really made us feel that we were inferior was the fact that one of the cars was following us through the neighborhood until we got out. That experience was the most shameful one I ever been into. I really hate cops since this experience. Being a minority and particularly black is not a crime. I totally presume that most of the police are like that. Racial bias and discrimination are existent in the minds of many individuals, some of whom may have, if it is at all possible, a justification for such thoughts. But when it comes to the protection and justice of a society, race should not even be an issue. The criminal justice system of today fuels its flame of democracy with decisions influenced by a certain individual’s race and stature in society, and allows these preconceptions to be the basis of such decisions. Whether it is the African American motorist being pulled over with no probable cause, or the racially spurred brutalizing by the police, racism prevails in the world of criminal justice. Most communities that suffer police discrimination and violence have little control of the economy, or political overseers of the police. Typically the people who do have these powers are the richer communities, with primarily white citizens. I do not think the community or even education can do something about it, it is already in their manners and nothing will change it, The only think that could make a minority person close to their tight circle is â€Å"money†.

Operation Catapult at Mers El Kebir (World War II)

Operation Catapult at Mers El Kebir (World War II) The attack on the French fleet at Mers el Kebir took place on July 3, 1940, during World War II (1939-1945). Events Leading up to the Attack During the closing days of the Battle of France in 1940, and with the German victory all but assured, the British became increasingly worried about the disposition of the French fleet. The fourth largest navy in the world, the ships of the Marine Nationale possessed the potential to alter the naval war and threaten Britains supply lines across the Atlantic. Voicing these concerns to the French government, Prime Minister Winston Churchill was assured by Navy Minister Admiral Franà §ois Darlan that even in defeat, the fleet would be kept from the Germans. Unknown to either side was that Hitler had little interest in taking over the Marine Nationale, only ensuring that its ships were neutralized or interned â€Å"under German or Italian supervision.† This latter phrase was included in Article 8 of the Franco-German armistice. Misinterpreting the language of the document, the British believed that the Germans intended to take control of the French fleet. Based on this and a distrust of Hitler, the British War Cabinet decided on June 24 that any assurances provided under Article 8 should be disregarded. Fleets and Commanders During the Attack British Admiral Sir James Somerville2 battleships, 1 battlecruiser, 2 light cruisers, 1 aircraft carrier, 11 destroyers French Admiral Marcel-Bruno Gensoul2 battleships, 2 battlecruisers, 6 destroyers, 1 seaplane tender Operation Catapult At this point in time, the ships of the Marine Nationale were scattered in various ports. Two battleships, four cruisers, eight destroyers, and numerous smaller vessels were in Britain, while one battleship, four cruisers, and three destroyers were in port at Alexandria, Egypt. The largest concentration was anchored at Mers el Kebir and Oran, Algeria. This force, led by Admiral Marcel-Bruno Gensoul, consisted of the older battleships Bretagne and Provence, the new battlecruisers Dunkerque and Strasbourg, the seaplane tender Commandant Teste, as well as six destroyers. Moving forward with plans to neutralize the French fleet, the Royal Navy began Operation Catapult. This saw the boarding and capture of French ships in British ports on the night of July 3. While the French crews generally did not resist, three were killed on the submarine Surcouf. The bulk of the ships went on to serve with Free French forces later in the war. Of the French crews, the men were given the option to join the Free French or be repatriated across the Channel. With these ships seized, ultimatums were issued to the squadrons at Mers el Kebir and Alexandria. Ultimatum at Mers el Kebir To deal with Gensouls squadron, Churchill dispatched Force H from Gibraltar under the command of Admiral Sir James Somerville. He was instructed issue an ultimatum to Gensoul requesting that the French squadron do one of the following: Join the Royal Navy in continuing the war with GermanySail to a British port with reduced crews to be interned for the durationSail to the West Indies or the United States and remain there for the rest of the warScuttle their ships within six hoursIf Gensoul refused all four options, Somerville was instructed to destroy the French ships to prevent their capture by the Germans. A reluctant participant who did not wish to attack an ally, Somerville approached Mers el Kebir with a force consisting of the battlecruiser HMS Hood, the battleships HMS Valiant and HMS Resolution, the carrier HMS Ark Royal, two light cruisers, and 11 destroyers. On July 3, Somerville sent Captain Cedric Holland of Ark Royal, who spoke fluent French, into Mers el Kebir aboard the destroyer HMS Foxhound to present the terms to Gensoul. Holland was coldly received as Gensoul expected negotiations to be conducted by an officer of equal rank. As result, he sent his flag lieutenant, Bernard Dufay, to meet with Holland. Under orders to present the ultimatum directly to Gensoul, Holland was refused access and ordered to leave the harbor. Boarding a whaleboat for Foxhound, he made a successful dash to the French flagship, Dunkerque, and after additional delays were finally able to meet with the French admiral. Negotiations continued for two hours during which Gensoul ordered his ships to prepare for action. Tensions were further heightened as Ark Royals aircraft began dropping magnetic mines across the harbor channel as talks progressed. A Failure of Communication During the course of the talks, Gensoul shared his orders from Darlan which permitted him to scuttle the fleet or sail for America if a foreign power attempted to claim his ships. In a massive failure of communication, the full text of Somervilles ultimatum was not relayed to Darlan, including the option of sailing for the United States. As talks began to stalemate, Churchill was becoming increasingly impatient in London. Concerned that the French were stalling to allow reinforcements to arrive, he ordered Somerville to settle the matter at once. An Unfortunate Attack Responding to Churchills orders, Somerville radioed Gensoul at 5:26 PM that if one of the British proposals was not accepted within fifteen minutes he would attack. With this message Holland departed. Unwilling to negotiate under threat of enemy fire, Gensoul did not respond. Approaching the harbor, the ships of Force H opened fire at an extreme range approximately thirty minutes later. Despite the approximate similarity between the two forces, the French were not fully prepared for battle and anchored in a narrow harbor. The heavy British guns quickly found their targets with Dunkerque put out of action within four minutes. Bretagne was struck in a magazine and exploded, killing 977 of its crew. When the firing stopped, Bretagne had sunk, while Dunkerque, Provence, and the destroyer Mogador  were damaged and run aground. Only Strasbourg and a few destroyers succeeded in escaping the harbor. Fleeing at flank speed, they were ineffectively attacked by Ark Royals aircraft and briefly pursued by Force H. The French ships were able to reach Toulon the next day. Concerned that the damage to Dunkerque and Provence was minor, British aircraft attacked Mers el Kebir on July 6. In the raid, the patrol boat Terre-Neuve exploded near Dunkerque causing additional damage. Aftermath of Mers el Kebir To the east, Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham was able to avoid a similar situation with the French ships at Alexandria. In hours of tense talks with Admiral Renà ©-Emile Godfroy, he was able to convince the French to allow their ships to be interned. In the fighting at Mers el Kebir, the French lost 1,297 killed and around 250 wounded, while the British incurred two killed. The attack badly strained Franco-British relations as did an attack on the battleship Richelieu at Dakar later that month. Though Somerville stated we all feel thoroughly ashamed, the attack was a signal to the international community that Britain intended to fight on alone. This was reinforced by its stand during the Battle of Britain later that summer. Dunkerque, Provence, and Mogador received temporary repairs and later sailed for Toulon. The threat of the French fleet ceased to be an issue when its officers scuttled its ships in 1942 to prevent their use by the Germans. Selected Sources HistoryNet: Operation CatapultHMS Hood.org: Operation Catapult

Lawrence Klein Project Essays

Lawrence Klein Project Essays Lawrence Klein Project Essay Lawrence Klein Project Essay Model 1 was created to try and explain the cause and effects of the great depression in USA in the 1920s and 1930s. It tries to explain why the economy did so badly at the end of the 1920s then eventually recovered towards the end of the 1930s. Basic Time Plot Analysis We have plotted three important variables to graphically explain what Klein was trying to explain in his model. These three variables are consumption, investment and private wages. Figure 1 shows the consumption levels every year from 1921 to 1943. In 1921 consumption is 39. Consumption rises each year steadily until 1930 where consumption is at 57. 8. Consumption falls in 1931 and rapidly. It falls for a further two years and reaches a level of 45. 6 in 1933. In 1934 the consumption levels start to rise again and do so for the next ten years except for a small dip in 1939. Figure 2 shows the investment levels from 1921-1943. Investment starts at 2. 7 in 1921. Here it falls the next year to -0. 2%, after this in general it rises each year until 1927 where it reaches 5. 6%. In the next six years it falls to -6. 2% in 1933. After 1933 there is a sharp rise in investment every year until 1937 where it flattens at around 2% for two years. From 1939 Investment rises further and in three years it reaches 4. 9%. Figure 3 shows the private wages in the time period. In 1921 private wages are 28. 8. They fall the following year, but increase at a steady pace to reach 41. 3 in 1930. From 1931 to 1934 private wages fall rapidly to 28. 5. Wages start to rise in 1935 and continue to do so except for a small fall in 1939 for the next four years. By 1938 wages have reached 41. This links in with Grangers attempt to explain the great depression. As the figures show investment falls then consumption and private wages fall with a slightly longer lag. From these results one can say that significantly different estimations are obtained using TSLS rather than OLS for consumption. We can conclude also that the model is a good fit with R2 values of 0. 97214 and 0. 982007 for the OLS and TSLS regressions respectively. The signs of the coefficients for ? and W1 are as expected; when profits and private wages rise one would expect consumption to rise too. One would expect ? -1 to have a positive coefficient as in the TSLS regression rather than the negative one found in OLS, and therefore one can say that the TSLS estimates are consistent with expectations. The estimates using OLS and TSLS are almost identical and the signs of the coefficient are consistent with expectations. Near identical R2 values of 0. 980973 and 0. 980972 for OLS and TSLS respectively imply an excellent fit it both cases, and it is not of huge importance which method is used for estimation. Correlogram When we have time series data, where the observations follow a natural ordering through time, there is always a problem that successive errors we be correlated with each other. Serial correlation is present when residuals correlate with their own lagged variables. This violates the standard assumption of regression theory that disturbances are not correlated with other disturbances. This is a problem as OLS is no longer efficient among linear estimators. Standard errors are not correct and are often understated and if there are lagged dependent variables on the right-hand side, OLS estimates are then biased and inconsistent. 1 We can use the Correlogram to find out whether the series is stationary or non-stationary. With a stationary series the autocorrelations gradually die out, indicating that the values further in the past are less correlated with the current value. For non-stationary the autocorrelations do not die out rapidly at all. We have decided to plot correlograms for consumption (figure 4), investment (figure 5) and private wages (figure 6). All three of these graphs show the same thing, the autocorrelation drops fairly soon. It certainly does not stay. From this, one can assume that all three series are stationary. The regression is therefore not necessarily spurious. When non-stationary time series occur, the problem can be that the regression may indicate a significant relationship when actually there isnt one. The correlogram has allowed us to see that the regression is not spurious and so the relationships are reliable. We can tell that there is serial correlation in the model as we have tested that at least some of the AC and PC are greater than zero. The Q-stats are significant the P values are low.

Statistics for managers class discussion wk9 Coursework

Statistics for managers class discussion wk9 - Coursework Example The logistic regression model involved the development of an approximated multiple regression equations. The probability prediction that a customer belongs to a particular client group was the dependent variable. On the other hand, the measures of shopping behaviors of customers, represented as x1, x2, x3, . . . , xp, were the independent variables in the regression analysis. The independent variables included the day/hour of purchase, items purchased, and amount purchased. The logistic regression analysis was useful in the sense that it helped the marketers of dunnhumby to identify the most crucial independent variables as far as predicting customer population and customer group is concerned. In view of how dunnhumby applied the multiple regression model, the model can also be used in other business scenarios. For example, an automobile company such as GM Motors can use a multiple regression analysis to identify its customer shopping behavior, season of shopping, customer preferences, and customer experiences, for a particular model of car sold at a given price. It will help the company to produce and distribute the car that most consumers prefer in the largest quantity. Besides, Amazon.com can use a multiple regression analysis to determine the items that are bought most frequently by customers, the month that most customers visit the website to check the item, and the amount of items purchased within a period. Subsequently, Amazon will develop an interface that enables all customers to preview the featured item and perhaps buy it. Fundamentally, multiple regression analysis allows the determination of the connection between multiple independent variables and one depend ent variable. However, it has the major drawback that it makes assumptions that need to be checked. In addition, multiple regression analysis uses unknown independent variables to draw conclusions and make recommendations. Overall,

Love Office of Community Oriented Policing Services Essay

Love Office of Community Oriented Policing Services - Essay Example The police officers will regularly tour the schools to spot bullies and victims. Upon finding a bully incident, the police officers can immediately arrest the bullies and drag them to jail for the filing of the appropriate charges. However, schools follow traditional norms of hiring the security guards to handle the school’s anti-bullying efforts. The guards arrest students who bully the teachers, administrators, school employees, and students. In addition, Scott Berinato (2007) emphasized the school guards can reduce the 27 percent K-12 bullying statistics in United States schools. The police will enter the bullying scene when requested by school authorities, students, parents, and other affected persons. Police records show that the current bullying scene includes 27 percent of K -12 students classified as bullying victims. The bullying statistics includes 8 percent of teachers being threatened by bullies in elementary and secondary schools. Specifically, the school administ ration of New England School refused to allow the police to have access to the controls of the school cameras. The police wanted full control in order to take full charge in case a school shooting incident or illegal activity. However, the police were only allowed to view the camera’s films of the school shooting incident. ... 12 defined policing as â€Å"a philosophy that promotes organizational strategies, which support the systematic use of partnerships and problem-solving techniques, to proactively address the immediate conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime, social disorder, and fear of crime.† Consequently, the police must encourage the school administration to do its share to effectively prevent or reduce the bullying statistics within the school’s premises. Furthermore, the above police department article Bullying in Schools (Sampson, 2009) states that bullying is composed of two components, repeated harmful acts and imbalance of power. It involves repeated physical, verbal, or psychological attacks or intimidation directed against a victim who cannot properly defend him or herself due to the assailants’ size or strength, or the victim is outnumbered or psychologically resilient. European and Scandinavian studies show that bullies are aggressive, domina nt, and slightly below average intelligence and reading ability. Additional research shows bullies compensate their poor social skills with bullying strategies. Bully victims are generally smaller and weaker than the school bullies. In addition, Anne Garrett (2003) reported accused 2007 shooter, Andy Williams, was a constant victim or target of California’s Santana High School’s bullies. Williams shot the students who bullied him. Several years after the Williams shooting spree, a study showed that one half of Santana High School students did not feel safe inside the school’s premises. In addition, one third of the students of Santana High School reported they were victims of the school bullies’ constant verbal abuses. In addition, 17 percent of same